Joachim Murat

Early Life & French Career

Birth & Early Service

Joachim Murat was born on March 25, 1767, in La Bastide-Fortunière, in the Department of the Lot in southwestern France. He was the youngest of six surviving children, and his parents, who ran an inn and posting station, aspired to make a priest of him. The young Murat attended seminary into his late teenage years but had little interest in the career path his parents had set him on. At barely nineteen years old, he abruptly left the seminary and enlisted in a cavalry regiment.

After his intended military career was initially cut short due to issues that are still not entirely clear (but appear to have been disciplinary in nature), Murat managed to get himself reinstated, thanks to his family’s political connections, as France was on the eve of revolution. Soon the social barriers that had once barred non-aristocrats from promotion past the point of noncommissioned officer were torn down, and Murat—as well as every other young French soldier—saw previously unimaginable opportunities before them now, ripe for the taking. The exodus of so many aristocrats from the army had left a need for new officers to take their place. Murat’s education served him well, and he soon found himself promoted to sous-lieutenant. “My family will see that I had no great disposition for the priesthood,” Murat wrote to a childhood friend at this time, “but I hope before long to prove to them in a more positive manner that I was not wrong in wanting to be a soldier. I will make my way if God and the musket-balls permit it.”

Shortly thereafter he was promoted to captain. From the start of the Revolution, he had enthusiastically embraced the revolution’s ideals, describing himself in a letter to his parents as a “pronounced republican” whose “duty is to fight; I do so, and the republican soldiers I command prove every day to the slaves of tyrants that when one fights for liberty, for the cause of the people, one is always victorious.” In the grip of his revolutionary ardor, he even took to signing his name as Marat for a time. This came back to haunt him in 1795 when the political pendulum of the revolution began to swing back towards the right; embroiled in a quarrel with the commander of his regiment, Murat was denounced as a Terrorist, and the signing of his name as Marat used as evidence against him. Murat defended himself with great eloquence before the Committee of Public Safety, and the charges against him came to nothing. He continued to serve as a captain in the 21st Chasseurs-a-cheval.

Revolutionary General

He was in temporary command of his regiment in the fall of 1795 when a royalist insurrection broke out in Paris. A young general by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte ordered Murat to go with his men to the plains of Sablon and retrieve forty cannon he had been told he would find there. Murat retrieved the guns, which soon dealt the infamous “whiff of grapeshot” that scattered the insurrection to the winds. Soon after, Murat requested to be made Bonaparte’s aide-de-camp, Bonaparte granted the request, and so began one of the most significant, tempestuous, and fateful relationships of both men’s lives. Bonaparte had already begun his meteoric ascent, and now would begin Murat’s.

Distinguishing himself as an effective and energetic cavalry officer under Bonaparte in Italy, in May of 1796 he was promoted to General of Brigade, at only twenty-eight years of age. But Bonaparte’s attachment to Murat began to dim during this period, whether because of the ties Murat was forming with Bonaparte’s political rivals, rumors of Murat’s flirtations with his wife Josephine during his brief stay in Paris in the spring of 1796, or other reasons, remains open to dispute. Whatever occurred, it was, according to Murat’s childhood friend and later finance minister the Count of Mosbourg, had a lasting effect on their relationship:

"Napoleon lavished on Murat the most flattering remarks of attachment, and Murat responded to them with an ardor which nothing could shake or weaken. Envy and intrigue were to trouble this happy accord. Those who wanted to harm Murat or supplant him seized on the occasion of his journey to Paris to penetrate the most injurious suspicions into the mind of the general-in-chief in the Army of Italy. He soon recognized the injustice of them, and yet he never completely forgot the offensive rumors which had so cruelly wounded him. Murat had to struggle all his life against these dangerous memories, which would embitter his brother-in-law’s discontentments on the slightest subject of complaint."

Murat wrote to Director Paul Barras from Malta in June of 1798, requesting to be reassigned, ostensibly due to bad health, but then admitting “I see his kindness in my regard diminish every day, every day I thought I had given him unequivocal proofs of my devotion to his fortune, this is the second motive which urges me to seek to separate myself from him; I think that Berthier… looks to embitter General Bonaparte against me…. I must seek any means of separating myself from my enemies.” But fortune worked in Murat’s favor again; rather than being reassigned, he remained with Bonaparte’s army, distinguished himself further throughout the ensuing Egyptian campaign. At the Battle of Aboukir, he was wounded in the face by a pistol shot from the Ottoman commander, Mustapha Pasha; Murat severed two of the man’s fingers with his saber and captured him. Three days later, Murat wrote to reassure his father about his condition:

"I am absolutely out of danger…. If in Europe, some beauty may, after one year of absence, have still conserved her sensitive heart for me, the nature of my wound must have a terrible impact on her constancy. Do not be alarmed, do not carry false judgments, I still have all my limbs: you will know that a Turk, and the Turks are not ordinarily very gallant, did me the kindness of sending a pistol shot through my jaw. It’s truly a unique and extremely fortunate blow, because the ball that entered from one side, beside the ear, left directly from the other side, neither offending the jaw nor tongue nor breaking any teeth. I am assured that I will by no means be disfigured. So, therefore tell those beauties, if there are any, that Murat, no longer being so handsome, will be no less brave in love."

General Bonaparte, in turn, wrote glowingly to the Directory afterwards: “The success of this battle, which will so much enhance the glory of the Republic, is principally due to General Murat… his brigade of cavalry has done the impossible.” He requested Murat’s promotion to General of Division, which was soon granted.

Marriage to Caroline Bonaparte

Soon after his return to France, Murat fell in love with Caroline Bonaparte, the youngest of Napoleon’s three sisters, and his feelings were very much mutual. The pair wished to marry, but Bonaparte was opposed, already envisioning prominent political marriages for his sisters and, despite Murat’s services in Egypt, not entirely enthused at the prospect of having him as a brother-in-law. But Caroline would not relent, and with Josephine likewise urging her husband to let the two marry, Bonaparte finally relented. Murat and Caroline were married in January of 1800. Eleven months later, Murat was sent to Italy, to take command of the Army of Observation, leaving behind a pregnant Caroline; two months later, she gave birth to their first of four children, a son name Achille.

Imperial Marshal

Murat remained in Italy until the fall of 1803. The following January, he was made Military Governor of Paris. At around the same time, a royalty conspiracy was discovered to assassinate Napoleon Bonaparte, who now served as First Consul. Implicated in the plot was the Bourbon Duke d’Enghien. On Bonaparte’s orders, the young duke was abducted from his home in Ettenheim, ten miles across the Rhine, and abruptly tried and shot at the chateau of Vincennes. Murat would deny any responsibility for the act, even moments before his own actions by firing squad eleven years later. Bonaparte, for his part, blamed Talleyrand and Fouché, and only faulted Murat for having been “scared” by the pair into believing the duke’s death was necessary.

Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor of the French on the 18th of May 1804. On the same day, the old title of Marshal, once abolished, was reestablished, and Murat was one of fourteen prominent generals to be named Marshal of the Empire. The next three years would see Murat reach the height of his military glory, as well as being granted the titles of Prince (as a result of his marriage to Napoleon’s sister).

Austerlitz and Prussian Campaigns

As war approached in the summer of 1805, Napoleon sent Murat to conduct a personal reconnaissance of the territory that would soon become the stage of one of the Emperor’s most triumphant campaigns. Traveling incognito as “Colonel Beaumont,” Murat sent Napoleon detailed reports of the roads, terrain, and political situation in Austria. When he returned to France, he was given command of the Cavalry Reserve: two divisions of cuirassiers, five divisions of dragoons, and one division of light cavalry, totaling approximately 22,000 men. In the ensuing campaign, Murat’s cavalry was instrumental in harassing the enemy’s rearguard, engaging in fierce pursuits of retreating units, and taking thousands of prisoners. But he was eager to be among the first to enter the Austrian capital, and his overzealousness occasionally caused Napoleon to lose his temper. “I cannot approve of your way of proceeding,” Napoleon lectured Murat in a letter on November 11. “You go right on in an empty-headed way without weighing the orders I have sent you…. You have thought only of the trifling glory of entering Vienna. There is no glory where there is no danger, and there is none in entering a capital which is undefended.” Murat’s vanity and impatience also brought him into squabbles with fellow marshals Ney and Lannes; nevertheless, the latter helped Murat execute a clever ruse which culminated in the Austrians surrendering a vital bridge to the French without the firing of a single shot. Unfortunately, Murat fell prey himself to a similar trick days later, further incurring Napoleon’s wrath. “It is impossible for me to find terms in which to express to you my displeasure,” wrote the Emperor. “You are making me lose the results of a campaign. Break off the armistice at once, and march upon the enemy.”

Despite Murat’s stumbles, Napoleon was highly pleased with his performance during the campaign overall, and in March of 1805 Murat was named Grand Duke of Berg. When war broke out with Prussia in 1806, Murat resumed command of the Cavalry Reserve, and his relentless pursuit captured over 10,000 fleeing Prussian soldiers in the aftermath of Napoleon’s victory at Jena. At Brenzlau on the 28th, Murat bluffed Prince Hohenlohe into surrendering his entire corps; Murat’s brigade commander General Lasalle captured the fortress of Stettin shortly thereafter. Napoleon was elated. “My brother,” he wrote to Murat on October 30, “I must compliment you on the taking of Stettin. If your light horsemen can capture fortified places in this way, I shall have to disband my engineers, and melt down my siege guns.”

Once the Prussians were defeated, Napoleon sent Murat into the former kingdom of Poland. On the 28th of November, Murat entered Warsaw, carrying with him the hopes that Napoleon might intend to name him king of a restored Poland. He met and befriended Prince Józef Poniatowski, nephew of the last Polish king, and awaited the Emperor’s arrival.

When the Russian army began marching on Warsaw to drive out Napoleon, Murat remained behind at the start of the ensuing campaign, initially too ill to take the field. He was still ill when he rejoined the army in late December; this did not stop him from leading what would become his most legendary charge, at the battle of Eylau on the 8th of February 1807. Leading around 11,000 cavalrymen, Murat smashed through the Russian infantry, saving the French center from destruction. The battle itself was a stalemate, and the war dragged on until the French victory at Friedland in June, followed by the signing of peace treaties at Tilsit.

Spanish Campaign

The following February, Napoleon ordered Murat to take command of all French troops in Spain. Murat was encouraged by the positive receptions of the Spanish people as he made his way through Vittoria and Burgos but remained unclear as to what the Emperor’s intentions for Spain were. The First Minister and favorite of King Charles IV, Manuel Godoy, known as the “Prince of Peace,” was extremely unpopular with the people. The supporters of Charles’ heir, Ferdinand, spread rumors that Godoy had sold Spain out to France; the growing French military occupation of Spain only increased popular distrust against the minister. On the 18th of March, a revolt erupted against Godoy, who was captured and wounded; to save his favorite, the king abdicated in favor of Ferdinand.

Murat, working from the assumption that Napoleon likely meant to install one of his brothers (or possibly Murat himself) on the Spanish throne, was uncertain as to how to proceed. He wrote to the Emperor for instructions; in the meantime, he avoided publicly recognizing Ferdinand as the new king. On March 27, Napoleon wrote to Murat, ordering him not to recognize Ferdinand. He also told Murat to deal harshly with any further revolts.

Rumors began to reach Madrid by late April that Napoleon planned to give the Spanish crown to one of his brothers. Popular discontent rapidly spread; large numbers of peasants began arriving in Madrid. Murat tried to keep the populace distracted, organizing bullfights and fetes. He remained naively optimistic that the Spanish people would accept Napoleon’s decision, and was caught completely by surprise when the people of Madrid erupted in revolt on the 2nd of May. He suppressed the uprising swiftly and brutally; over one hundred suspected insurgents were captured and executed. “The public tranquility,” he wrote to Napoleon that night, “was troubled this morning.”

“The people of the countryside, for the past several days, were assembling in the city; some pamphlets were circulating to excite revolt; a price was put on the heads of the French generals and officers lodged in the city; in short, everything announced a crisis. This morning, from eight o’clock, the rabble of Madrid and its environs obstructed all the avenues of the Castle and filled the courtyard…. Your Majesty’s guard took up arms, all the camps were set in motion and received the order to march to Madrid…. All the isolated soldiers in the streets who had been looking to return to their posts had already been assassinated; even those who were at the distributions were not spared…. I ordered General Grouchy to come to the Puerto del Sol, and Colonel Frederic to march on the same point… and to dissolve this frenzied mob with cannon blasts…. The peasants from the countryside, who had managed to escape the city, were encountered by the cavalry and sabered…. It was necessary that the whole city be immediately disarmed…. Sire, there were many people killed…. The calm is re-established.”

— Joachim to Napoléon following the Dos de Mayo Uprising.

After receiving the news of the uprising, Napoleon coerced Ferdinand into abdicating in favor of his father, who then surrendered his own rights to the Spanish crown to Napoleon. Soon Murat received a letter the Emperor, informing him that Joseph Bonaparte—then on the throne of Naples—was to become the new king of Spain. Napoleon told his brother-in-law to choose either the crown of Naples or Portugal; Murat wrote back that he preferred Naples. He fell violently ill shortly thereafter, leading to rumors in Paris that he had been poisoned. His illness continued through the summer, and he had to be borne on a litter to Bayonne to meet with Napoleon to work out the details of the treaty which granted him and Caroline their new kingdom. The wording of the treaty, which made it abundantly clear that Murat was being named King of Naples only by virtue of his marriage to the Emperor’s sister, irked Murat, as did Napoleon’s insistence on naming Caroline, rather than Murat’s oldest son Achille, as Murat’s direct heir in the event of his early death.

King of Naples

Murat’s reign as King of Naples began officially on the 1st of August, 1808, though he did not actually arrive in Naples until the 6th of September. Writes Baron Dedem, serving as Dutch ambassador to Naples at the time, “King Joachim was received in Naples with enthusiasm; his military reputation, his very figure, the hope for better, all contributed to win him support. The lazzaroni saw in him a warlike prince, compared him to one of their ancient heroes, Reinaldo; and, if they didn’t love him at first, certainly they respected him, perhaps more from fear than from any other sentiment.” Murat, encouraged by the positive reception, wrote optimistically to Napoleon two days later, “The city is still illuminated today, and enthusiasm is at its height; never has Naples offered such a general accord of admiration and devotion to Your Majesty, to have given it a king raised in his school.”

Murat set to work immediately to get the affairs of his new kingdom in order. The finances of Naples were in a deplorable state; Napoleon’s blockade on trade with England had ravaged the Neapolitan economy. Murat struggled to meet the expenses of his kingdom while also paying down its debts to France he had inherited from Joseph. He was also required to pay for the French troops Napoleon had stationed in Naples as a way of cutting his own expenses, even though these troops were not Murat’s to command.

It did not take long for Napoleon to begin finding fault with his brother-in-law’s administration. He accused Murat of prioritizing making himself popular with his new subjects, of mishandling his money, and of reactionary policies. Wounded by the deluge of criticism and accusations, Murat wrote plaintively to Napoleon on November 25:

“The letters of Your Majesty have long since ceased to be for me the letters of a benefactor, those of a remarkable monarch who knew how to raise me above myself and make my soul full of fire to serve him; an enemy genius has replaced the beneficent genius; I am for you now only the man who is tolerated with difficulty and who has managed to be rendered suspect; this position has become insupportable, I cannot reign successfully, with the feelings that have succeeded in inspiring you against the man who is most devoted to you.”

There was more to Napoleon’s displeasure with Murat than met the eye. While in Spain, the Emperor had been made aware of a collusion between the two ministers of whom Napoleon was already deeply suspicious—Talleyrand and Fouche—to potentially have Murat succeed Napoleon in the event that the Emperor died without a legitimate male heir. No letter implicating Murat directly in this scheme still exists, and the extent to which Murat was involved in the ministers’ plan—or if he was directly involved at all—may never be truly known. Nevertheless, the relationship between Napoleon and Murat began to deteriorate steadily from this point on, with only brief periods of reconciliation and harmony in between, up until the bond between them ruptured completely in 1814. “From that time,” wrote the Comte de Mosbourg, Murat’s finance minister and lifelong friend, “Napoleon’s distrust of Murat continually increased, often showing itself in outbursts that were very offensive to the King of Naples. The latter, whose pride was easily touched and who did not know the real cause of the criticisms that the emperor seemed to delight in showering on him, supposed that this was part of a set plan against him, and that the emperor was only looking for a pretext to take away his crown.”

The tension between Murat and Napoleon was further exacerbated by their conflicting views over what Murat’s exact role as King of Naples should be. Napoleon viewed his appointed kings as vassals, instruments to carry out his plans and support his long-term agendas in their respective kingdoms. They were to implement his policies and the Napoleonic Code with no deviation, regardless of how those policies might conflict with the customs and values of their kingdoms or wishes of the people, or how severely they impacted their kingdoms’ economies. Napoleon’s vassal kings were expected to always elevate the interests of France over those of their own subjects, without either question or argument.